Most of us appreciate the beauty of a full Moon sedately moving across our night skies. The Moon seems unchanging, as if for eons it has been there, controlling the tides, going through its phases every month and inspiring poets and lovers. It might surprise you to know that in the past, things were much different, and they are still changing.
A billion years ago, our relationship with the Moon was quite different. For one thing, the Moon was much closer and therefore appeared much larger: and we saw the entire Moon, not just one face as we do now. It took the Moon only twenty days to circle the Earth, and Earth's day was only eighteen hours long. Massive tides, over a kilometer in height, would ebb and flow every few hours. From the beginning though, things were changing, as the Moon's orbit was getting larger.
Every year, the Moon moves about four centimeters (about 1.6 inches,) farther out into space, away from Earth. Right now, the Moon's rotation rate, and the time it takes to orbit Earth are the same. Is this all just some cosmic coincidence? Would it surprise you to know that at one time, Earth didn't even have a moon? Where then, did our nearest neighbor in space come from, and what will the future bring? To answer these questions we must go very far back into time.
Four and a half billion years ago the Earth was about sixty percent formed, though it did have a differentiated core, crust and mantle. In these primal skies, there was no Moon. It was a very violent time in the Solar System with other planets forming from clumps of gas, dust and rock and impacts among these bodies were the norm. Orbits were not the sedate, orderly system they are today.
One planet, about the size of Mars, probably had an orbit which crosses Earth's, and eventually a collision occurred. The impacting planet made a hard, but glancing blow off Earth at just the right angle. It almost bounced off Earth, but was consumed instead. But the blow sent shock waves across Earth, spewing gas and debris into space, giving Earth, for a very short time, a ring around it.
The debris around Earth began to condense into clumps and quite rapidly, a blink in cosmic time, formed a large glowing ball: our primal Moon. The Moon would have looked about ten times larger than it does today, and the Earth was changed forever.
This story, about the birth of the Moon, is still a theory, one among several attempting to explain the source of our satellite. Currently, this is the most widely accepted of the theories.
Since that cosmic collision, the Earth and Moon have both have an effect on each other, and will continue to have an affect far into the future. Since the Earth is so much more massive than the Moon, the Earth has had the larger effect. Earth's gravity has caused the Moon to become tidally locked us as well as increasing the distance between the two worlds. By tidally locked, we mean that the moon's rotation rate is the same as the time it takes the moon to go once around Earth, which also results in us seeing only one side of the Moon.
The dynamics of this Earth/Moon relationship come basically down to Earth's tides so we need to take a closer look at them. We know that the Moon is the primary cause of Earth's ocean tides by the Moon “pulling” on the Earth as it goes around it. But gravity lessens with distance and this means that the pull from the Moon is stronger on the side of Earth that is facing the Moon.
Keep in mind that the Moon is not pulling on the Earth as a whole, but rather on the part of Earth beneath the Moon. So, as the Moon passes over a part of Earth, the Moon pulls on that area. If it is over water, the Moon actually pulls on the water, creating a void for more water to flow into that area and creating a high tide. Directly opposite that spot, the Moon's gravity is pulling on the Earth itself, pulling it away from the water and allowing more water to flow into that area creating another high tide. But because the distance from the Moon is greater, the pull from gravity on the far side of the Earth is about six percent less than on the side facing the Moon.
The Sun also has an effect on tides, but it only about forty six percent of the tidal effect from the Moon. That might sound confusing – seeing as how the Sun is so much bigger than the Moon, but remember – gravity decreases with distance – and the Sun is much farther away from Earth than the Moon.
When the Sun and Moon team up together (both on the same side of the Earth) we have even larger high tides. The point though, is that Earth is being tugged from several bodies, rotating under the shifting tides.
Also, remember that as the Moon is moving around the Earth, the Earth itself is spinning. The Earth spins much faster than the Moon moves around our planet. The effect this has, is that that the tidal bulge caused by the Moon is actually pulled ahead of the Moon by the Earth's faster rotation.
The Moon therefore is pulling back on the tidal bulge with the result that there is friction between the ocean floor and the water. The friction actually slows Earth down, therefore explaining why our days on Earth are getting longer.
These tidal bulges on Earth, have an affect on the Moon, in essence pulling the Moon and forcing it into a higher orbit. This is why the Moon is moving away from us.
We mentioned tides on Earth caused by the Moon – but Earth actually causes tides on the Moon's surface as well. Even though the Moon has a solid surface of rock, small tidal bulges actually occur. Earth tugging on the Moon's surface has slowed down the rotation of the Moon over time. Over time the Moon rotation slowed until it equaled the time it took the Moon to go around the Earth. At that point, those lunar tidal bulges lined up with Earth and the rotation ceased slowing down: the Moon was tidally locked with Earth and that's why we see only one side of the Moon.
Just because the Moon's rotation has ceased to slow down doesn't mean that the Earth/Moon system isn't changing in other ways. We already know that the Moon is moving farther away from Earth but other changes are happening as well.
We mentioned that Earth's rotation was being slowed by the friction between the oceans and the ocean floor. This will continue to happen until Earth's tidal bulges align with an imaginary line running through the center of the Earth/Moon system then Earth's rotation will cease slowing down. This will take a few billion years but when it does happen: Earth's day will be a month long (960 hours a day) and our month will be forth days long! By then the Moon will be twenty-five percent farther away. If we were on the Moon looking back at Earth – we would see the same face of Earth – just as now we see only one face of the Moon. And if someone were still on Earth: the Moon will have moved far enough away that it appears much smaller – and there are no more solar eclipses!
We have yet to answer that question about a cosmic coincidence. Do we “just happen” to be here on Earth when the Moon is close enough to give us tides, and slowed the Earth's rotation until we have a twenty-four hour day and thirty day month? Some scientists believe that it may be thanks to the Moon that we are here at all.
Although the Moon is slowing down Earth's rotation, it has stabilized it as well. If we had no moon, we would suffer movement of the Earth's poles, an axial tilt of up to ninety degrees, causing major climate swings. Some scientists believe that under those circumstances: intelligent life simply could not have evolved.
It is hard to imagine that our world as we know it, and all that is familiar to us, would likely not exist if not for the Moon. We may truly owe our lives to a lunar legacy.
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“The fog comes on little cat feet. It sits looking over harbor and city on silent haunches and then moves on.”
Carl Sandburg 1916
Whether it softly comes in on little cat feet, or rolls in like a spooky movie, everyone has experienced fog. Although there are different types of fog, essentially fog is a cloud on the ground which reduces visibility to less than 1km. The basic requirements for fog to form are moisture in the air – the closer to 100% humidity the better, and the air near the ground must be cooling to within 5 F (3 C) of dew point – this is the temperature to which air must be cooled in order for water vapor in the air to condense to liquid water. When the air near the ground cools to dew point, the water vapor in the air will become visible as fog in the air or dew on the ground.
Fogs during summer will only happen with clear skies and near 100% humidity. There must also be condensation nuclei – or something onto which the water can condense. Condensation nuclei can be dust particles, aerosols, pollutants etc. When the air is saturated, additional moisture will condense onto this nuclei. Fog so often forms after sunset because that is when the air begins to cool and condensation replaces evaporation. Air cools best with clear skies as there are no clouds to trap the heat.
Fog can form at lower humidity levels if there are a really large amount of nuclei, especially if it is something such as salt.
During the summer, if there is a storm which includes hail, a phenomenon called hail fog can form. It is usually a shallow layer of fog above the ground. It forms because of increased moisture and cold air coming in contact with the warm ground.
During fall and early winter the most common form of fog is radiation fog. This type of fog forms when the land cools after sunset by radiating the heat up into the atmosphere. The air must be calm and the skies clear, again because cloud cover will trap heat in. When the ground is cool, it will cause condensation in the air above it. The more calm the air, the lower the fog is, under ideal conditions, the fog may only be a meter deep. Air movement will produce a thicker fog. Radiation fog can occur throughout the night but rarely lasts long after sunrise.
During winter – fog forms in a different manner, almost the opposite of summer fogs. During the winter months, fog will form when humid air moves over a cold surface. Winter fog is more common around bodies of water and is sometimes called lake effect fog.
Freezing fog, or Steam fog tends to occur in localized areas where cool air passes over warm, moist land. The tiny droplets in the fog will then freeze to surfaces. This frozen “fog” is called rime ice or hoar frost. Don't confuse this with freezing rain – which is a true precipitation. Freezing fog is common at high elevations may come into contact with low clouds. An example of freezing fog is the ice which forms in old style freezers that aren't “frost-free.”
In high northern or southern latitudes, especially around urban areas Ice fog can form. Ice fog is any type of fog where the droplets freeze into very tiny crystals in midair. This type of fog forms when the air temperature is well below freezing, generally below zero, so that any vapor present almost immediately condenses. Vapor is added to the air by automobile exhaust, furnaces and industrial plant exhaust. Ice fog can be extremely dense, posing driving hazards and the fog can last all through the day and night. The minuscule ice crystals sparkle in the sunlight and are often called “diamond dust”. Diamond dust can pose a health hazard if too much is inhaled. The Shoshone tribe of Native Americans had their own name for ice fog: they called it the Pogonip, which means “white death.” again because of the hazards of breathing it in.
If it seems sometimes that fog forms really quickly you are correct. There is a condition called flash fog. Fog can dissipate just as rapidly. This condition is dependent on which side of the dew point the temperature is.
If you live near the ocean you will likely have seen sea fog. Sea fog forms when the condensation nuclei is salt. Salt is, of course, very common near the ocean where it is kicked up into the atmosphere by the breaking waves. Salt is a unique condensation nuclei in that it will allow fog to form when the humidity is as low as 70%. Typically this fog begins as a transparent mistiness which rapidly changes to thick fog. Sea fog is a common type of fog along the California cost.
Fog can sometimes be accompanied by drizzle when the humidity stays at 100%. When this happens tiny cloud droplets can coalesce into larger droplets. When the temperatures are below freezing the drizzle will freeze producing very hazardous driving conditions. Drizzle usually occurs just as the fog is lifting, and therefore cooling, or when the droplets are being compressed from the droplets above.
When wind blows moist air over a cool surface the air will cool and advection fog will form. Advection fog is very common at sea when tropical winds pass over cooler waters and on land when a warm front passes over heavy snow. It can also form in areas of upwelling, such as along the California coast. During spring or fall a cold front can propel the air layer over the land. During the summer months, a low pressure trough can be produced by intense heating inland which creates a strong pressure gradient, pulling the fog in from the water. Also during the summer, during the monsoons, a high pressure over the desert can create a southerly flow which pushes the offshore layer of air up the coastline. This type is most commonly created after a heat spell.
When winds blow up a slope they will cool as they rise, causing water vapor to condense and producing what is called upslope fog. If the slope is high enough, freezing fog will form.
Valley fog is a localized form of radiation fog and forms most often in winter when there is a temperature inversions. This is where colder, more dense air settles in the valleys with warmer air passing above. It can actually last for days if there is no wind to mix the air. In the Central Valley region of California, locals call this type of fog Tule Fog.
Most everyone has heard fog described to be “thick as pea soup,” but few folks know where this term originated from. Though it is liberally used to describe any thick fog it orginally was used to describe a dingy yellow smog from burning soft coal. This type of fog was common in Europe, especially London which is famous for its fog anyway. Such fogs occurred in London all the way up till the Clean Air Act of 1956.
Mist is often mistaken for fog and with good reason. The only difference between the two is in our definition of them. If the visibility is less then 1 km, the phenomenon is termed fog, otherwise it is mist. Mist tends to look a bit bluish from a distance. Mist is artificially created when you exhale warm breath on a cold day.
There is a fair amount of weather related folklore surrounding fog, most of it with only a marginal amount of truth.
“If fog forms on water in the autumn or spring a frost is on the way.” This one has some truth to it in that the fog indicates a lot of moisture in the air, and there are many nights cool enough for frost to form with that moisture in autumn and spring.
“A foggy morning with dew on grass indicates a clear day.” This saying is often true because fog most often forms on calm, clear nights and that naturally would lead to a clear day ahead.
Other sayings however, are purely silly and very inaccurate. “Dogs sleeping through the day indicate a coming storm or heavy fog.” Dog owners will attest that their dogs sleep through the day regardless of clouds, fog or clear. “Observe on what day the first heavy fog occurs, and expect a hard frost on the same day in October,” and “Three days of heavy morning fog, watch for bad weather in 90 days,” are about as illogical as groundhogs looking for their shadow to determine when spring will come!
Many people find fog beautiful, but no one can deny it is a visibility hazard. Before radar, fog caused many a collision. Cars and trucks however don't have radar and must use extra caution driving through fog. Localized fog is especially dangerous to unwary drivers when it appears suddenly.
Fog can wreck real havoc with airports, often grounding flights for hours at a time. There have been some attempts to disperse the fog by spraying salt particles into the air but this has been only partially successful and only when temperatures are below freezing.
If you can't get enough of fog, try visiting the foggiest place in the world. This honor goes to the Grand Banks off the island of Newfoundland, Canada. Here, one can enjoy fog over 200 days a year! Why is it so foggy here? The Grand Banks is the place where the cold Labrador Current coming in from the north, meets up with the warmer Gulf Stream coming up from the south. If you aren't a sea farer, you can still enjoy lots of foggy weather by visiting Point Reyes, California, or Argentia, Newfoundland both sites also enjoying nearly 200 foggy days a year!